batteray in electic car

Rechargeable battery materials used in electric vehicles include lead-acid ("flooded" and VRLA), NiCd, nickel metal hydride, lithium-ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less commonly, zinc-air and molten salt. The Lithium iron phosphate battery is currently one of the most promising electric vehicle battery variants due to its light weight, high specific energy, and lack of thermal runaway issues that have plagued laptop computer lithium-ion batteries. The amount of electricity stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or coulombs, with the total energy often measured in watt hours.

Historically, EVs and PHEVs have had problems with high battery costs, limited range between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited their widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have reduced many of these problems; many models have recently been prototyped, and a few future production models have been announced.

from: wikipedia

Acceleration and drivetrain design in electric car

Electric motors can provide high power to weight ratios, and batteries can be designed to supply the large currents to support these motors.

Although some electric vehicles have very small motors, 15 kW (20 hp) or less and therefore have modest acceleration, many electric cars have large motors and brisk acceleration. In addition, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor, even at very low speeds tends to increase the acceleration performance of an electric vehicle relative to that of the same rated motor power internal combustion engine. Another early solution was American Motors’ experimental Amitron piggyback system of batteries with one type designed for sustained speeds while a different set boosted acceleration when needed.

Electric vehicles can also use a direct motor-to-wheel configuration which increases the amount of available power. Having multiple motors connected directly to the wheels allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction. In some cases, the motor can be housed directly in the wheel, such as in the Whispering Wheel design, which lowers the vehicle's center of gravity and reduces the number of moving parts. When not fitted with an axle, differential, or transmission, electric vehicles have less drivetrain rotational inertia.

When the foot is lifted from the accelerator of an ICE, engine braking causes the car to slow. An EV would coast under these conditions, and applying mild regenerative braking instead provides a more familiar response.

A gearless or single gear design in some EVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. As there is no delay in developing torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction with acceleration.

For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively modest 220 kW (295 hp), and top speed of around 160 km/h (100 mph). Some DC motor-equipped drag racer EVs, have simple two-speed transmissions to improve top speed. The Tesla Roadster prototype can reach 100 km/h (62 mph) in 4 seconds with a motor rated at 185 kW (248 hp).

Energy eficiency in electric car

Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat. On the other hand, electric motors are more efficient in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle, and electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and some of the energy lost when braking is captured and reused through regenerative braking, which captures as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking.^[73][74] Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles have on-board efficiency of around 80%.^[73]

Production and conversion electric cars typically use 10 to 23 kW·h/100 km (0.17 to 0.37 kW·h/mi).^[36][75] Approximately 20% of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the vehicle efficiency (including charging inefficiencies) of their lithium-ion battery powered vehicle is 12.7 kW·h/100 km (0.21 kW·h/mi) and the well-to-wheels efficiency (assuming the electricity is generated from natural gas) is 24.4 kW·h/100 km (0.39 kW·h/mi).^[76] The US fleet average of 10 l/100 km (24 mpg_-US) of gasoline is equivalent to 96 kW·h/100 km (1.58 kW·h/mi), and the Honda Insight uses 32 kW·h/100 km (0.52 kW·h/mi) (assuming 9.6 kW·h per liter of gasoline).^{[citation needed]}

The waste heat generated by an ICE is frequently put to beneficial use by heating the vehicle interior. Electric vehicles generate very little waste heat and resistance electric heat may have to be used to heat the interior of the vehicle if heat generated from battery charging/discharging can not be used to heat the interior. Electric vehicles used in cold weather will show increased energy consumption and reduced battery capacity and so decreased range on a single charge, for example the Mini E's range dropped by 30% in cold weather.^[77]

Capacitive Limit Detection

To ensure that the Minicap operates safely and without electrical interference, it must be connected to ಎನ್ earthed silo with metal or reinforced concrete walls.
For silos made of non-conductive materials, the external earth wire of the Minicap must ಬಿ connected to ಅ conductive and earthed component which is earthed near to the silo. The protective earth can be connected to the internal earth terminal of the Minicap. Connections can be made with standard instrument cabling. See TI 241F/00/en for information on EMC (testing procedures, installation). Connect the potential matching lead (PAL) when using in dust explosion hazardous areas.

Measuring principle Limit Detection

Limit Detection
A metal plate at the end of the probe, within the insulation, and the integrated counter-electrode together the surroundings combine to form the two electrodes of a capacitor. If the probe is covered or free of material, then the capacitance changes and the Minicap switches. Active Build-up . The Minicap detects build-up on the probe and compensates for its effects so that the switch point is accurate. The effects of build-up compensation depend on:
• the thickness of the build-up on the probe,
• conductivity of the material,
• the sensitivity setting on the electronic insert.
Setting the Sensitivity
The Minicap is so calibrated at the factory that it correctly switches in most cases. Greater sensitivity can be set using a multi-pole switch on the electronic insert. This is only necessary, however,if there is very strong build-up on the probe, or if the dielectric constant of the material is very small.

Minicap FTC260, ಟ೨೬೨, Compact switch for limit detection with active build-up

Applications
Minicap is designed for limit detection of light ಬಲಕ್ solids, with a grain size up to max. 30 mm and ಅ dielectric constant εr ≥ 1.6, e.g. grain products, flour, milk powder, animal feed, cement, chalk or gypsum.
Versions:
• Minicap FTC260 (left): with 140 mm rod probe, with FDA listed for bulk solids and liquids
• Minicap FTC262 (right): with max. 6 m rope for bulk solids
• Relay output (potential-free change-over contact / SPDT) with AC or DC power
• PNP output with three-wire DC power
Your Benefits
• Complete unit consisting of the probe and electronic
insert:
– simple mounting
– no calibration on start-up
• Active build-up compensation
– accurate switch point even with heavy build on the probe
– high operational safety
• Mechanically rugged
– no wearing parts
– long operating life
– no maintenance
• The rope probe of the Minicap FTC262 can ಬಿ shortened
– optimum matching to the measuring point in the silo
– less stocks required

transmision

1. Electrical transmission towers, more typically referred to as electrical pylons, typically support a range of power line solutions based on the construction of single, double and triple-tiered configurations. This multi-level approach allows commercial utilities to mix and match various kilowatt capacities depending on rural, semi-rural and urban power needs. The most basic of all configurations is the single-tiered "delta," or "cat's head" assembly, and to easily understand the basic parts of the structure, we will examine this setup.
2. "Delta" bases are constructed from a series of interconnected triangles, also known as lattices, made of steel or aluminum. These systems are characterized as being wide at the base, then tapering from the bottom up to the mid-point of the structure.
3. The "delta" head assembly is installed to produce a supporting structure that extends up and out from the mid-point of the base. When installed, the structure angles outward, and creates a triangular shape that exhibits the structure's more colloquial name, "cat's head." The point of the structure is to elevate and "hang" the powerline arms.
4. The powerline arms "hang" and connect high-voltage wire conductors to subsequent lengths. These conductors are connected to the arms by what are referred to as "insulators." These components eliminate the chance of touching or "shorting" the wires against the steel or aluminum tower